G. The Era of Unequal Treaties

The treaty contained twelve main articles. Among them, it opened five Chinese cities including Shanghai to residence by British subjects and opening of consulates. China ceded Hong Kong to Britain in "perpetuity" to be ruled as they "shall see fit." The British received $21 million for payment of lost opium, and cost of the war. It replaced terminology such as "beg" or "petition" that foreigners had been forced to use with "communication," "statement," and "declaration" to be used in official communications.

In 1843, the American signed the Treaty of Wanghia, which followed the same lines as the British with some important additions. The Americans obtained rights to build hospitals, churches and cemeteries and allowed United States citizens to hire Chinese scholars to teach the languages of China. In 1844, the French followed with their treaty following the lines of the Americans. It also allowed full permission for Catholics to operate in China. A host of other nations followed. Of the five cities, only Shanghai had any real benefit to the foreign powers. In 1854, the British forced the Chinese to renegotiate their treaty. Moving jointly with the Americans and French, they began to seize Chinese cities. The Treaty of Tianjin imposed some extraordinary strict terms on China. The Chinese still refer to this era as the Age of Unequal Treaties.

The Chinese resisted and the war resumed. A military effort pushed into Beijing and the British burned to the ground the Yuan Ming Yuan, the summer palaces of the Emperor. (The Chinese have not rebuilt it as a reminder of those days.) After this the Chinese signed and ceded part of the mainland of Kowloon to the British. The Taiping revolution still raged and became a further irritant to the Qing.